







t 


Class 

Book 



Copyright N°_ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 















SELECTION AND 
PREPARATION OF FOOD 

LABORATORY GUIDE 


ISABEL BEVIER, Ph.M. 
ANNA R. VAN METER, M.S. 


Revised Edition 




WHITCOMB & BARROWS 
BOSTON, 1910 





COPYRIGHT I907, I9IO 

BY 

ISABEL BEVIER and ANNA R. VAN METER 


c. 1 

•» r. «j 


COMPOSITION AND ELECTROTYPING BY 
THOMAS TODD CO. 

14 BEACON STREET, BOSTON, MASS. 


©CI.A27 1551 










CONTENTS 

FIRST SEMESTER 

[Course i) 

Introduction. 5 

General Outline. 7 

Kitchen and Equipment. 8 

Water. 14 

Milk. 16 

Eggs. 21 

Cheese . 25 

Meat . 28 

Gelatin. 40 

Fats and Oils. 42 

Demonstration. 47 

SECOND SEMESTER 

[Course 6) 

Preservation of Food. 48 

Carbohydrates in General. 53 

Cane Sugar. 55 

Starch. 59 

Carbohydrates in Combination . . .. 62 

Cereals. 68 

Flour.*. 80 

Breads. 82 

Practice Luncheon. 84 

Meals. 86 


cr 
























LABORATORY GUIDE 


INTRODUCTION 

f I MlIS Guide has been prepared for the students 
taking the work in the Selection and Preparation 
of Food in the Department of Household Science of 
the University of Illinois. 

The work is based on the supposition that a scien¬ 
tific study of the food problem requires a sufficient 
knowledge of pure science to appreciate the fundamen¬ 
tal processes that underlie the preparation of food; 
also on the idea that an orderly development of the 
study of foods is desirable and that the principles of 
cookery may be taught by the same general method 
as the principles of chemistry are taught, i. e., by a 
study of typical compounds. The development of this 
idea suggests a study of one type of foods at a time 
until the student has gained some familiarity with that 
type. Thus the study of eggs gives a comparatively 
pure form of protein with which to illustrate the char¬ 
acteristics of protein foods. Cheese and meat offer 
further opportunities for the study of this principle. 

The first real work with food begins with milk, 
because it is easy to separate from it the different 
food principles. Moreover, it also affords an introduc¬ 
tion, by lecture, to the study of the composition of the 
body and the uses of the food principles in it. 

5 


6 


Preparation of Food 


In every case the plan of studying any food is to 
consider its general aspects in the lecture, its physical 
and chemical properties in the laboratory, and, finally, 
to show how these influence the preparation of a par¬ 
ticular dish. For instance, a custard is a good example 
of a combination of food materials, and the low tem¬ 
perature used in making it is a result of what has 
been learned concerning the action of heat on protein. 
Again, the cheese dishes introduce other elements to 
be considered in making combinations of food materials. 
The dishes selected are such as seem to illustrate the 
principles previously studied. Care in manipulation and 
attractiveness of appearance are constantly considered, 
but the dish is made to illustrate a principle. For 
example, water as a carrier of flavor may be illustrated 
either by the making of tea or of lemon ice; in one 
case the principle of extraction is taught, while in the 
other the principle of the freezing point of solutions 
is illustrated. Beverages and desserts suggest them¬ 
selves in this connection, but such a classification is 
merely incidental to the study of the principles. 

It is evident from the preceding statements that 
the Guide is not in any sense of the term a cook book, 
neither does it make any claim to originality in recipes. 
Those used are taken from standard works or formulated 
to meet a particular need. 


FIRST SEMESTER (COURSE I) 


PRINCIPLES OF THE SELECTION AND 
PREPARATION OF FOOD 

General Outline 

I. The Kitchen. 

1. Plan. 

2. Equipment. 

3. Standard measurements. 

4. Temperatures. 

II. Nature and Uses of Food. 

Considered as to: 

1. Source. 

2. Condition. 

3. Chemical composition: 

(a) Of food. 

(< b) Of the body. 

4. Function in the body of : 

(a) Protein. 

( b ) Fat. 

(c) Carbohydrate. 

(< d ) Water. 

(e) Mineral matter. 

5. Economic and esthetic value. 


7 


8 


Preparation of Food 


III. Selection of Food. 

Principles governing selection: 

1. Nature. 

2. Use. 

3. Cost. 

4. Condition. 

5. Preparation required. 


IV. Preparation of Food. 

1. Heat and its application. 

2. Water in the preparation of food. 

3. Manipulation of food materials based upon 

the principles of physics, chemistry, 
bacteriology, physiology, and economics. 


V. Serving of Food. 

1. General forms and customs. 

2. Serving of food in the home. 


THE KITCHEN 

I. Plan. 

1. Size. 

2. Finish. 

3. Ventilation. 

4. Furniture. 

II. Equipment. 

1. General. 

2. Individual. 



Laboratory Guide 


9 


III. Standard Measures. 

1. Meter. 

2. Utensils. 

3. Balances. 

4. Thermometers. 

IV. Temperatures. 

Experiment 1 

Draw a plan of the kitchen to scale, locating doors, 
windows, and furniture. 

Note height of tables, desks, and sinks. 

Is the arrangement of the furniture suited to the 
needs of a home kitchen ? 

How adequate are the means of ventilation ? 

Observe the kinds of finish used upon the walls, 
woodwork, floor, table tops, and sinks. Discuss the 
suitability of each of these surfaces. 

Describe the various stoves and burners. 

Make drawings of a cross section of the Aladdin 
oven and of the oven of the coal range. 

In what way do these differ from a gas or electrical 
oven ? 

Make an inventory of the furnishings of your desk, 
also of the supplementary material in the cupboards. 

List the reference books and bulletins. 

How may United States Government bulletins be 
obtained ? 

Describe a typical fireless cooker. What is the 
essential feature in its construction ? 

Examine the refrigerator, locating the air passages 
and drain pipe. 





10 


Preparation of Food 


What principle of physics is illustrated by both the 
refrigerator and the fireless cooker ? 

Experiment 2 

Lay a fire in the coal range. Explain the terms 
“kindling” and “kindling temperature.” Arrange 
dampers for heating the oven. 

What precaution must be taken before using a 
broiler upon a coal range ? 

Experiment 3 

Light and regulate the various burners of the gas 
range. 

What is the purpose of the device known as a 
“ mixer ” ? 

Apply a lighted match to this opening. Explain 
the result. 

Experiment 4 

Record the reading of the gas meter on the blanks 
provided, using the lower space. Make another read¬ 
ing at the end of the month, and compute the gas bill 
at current rates. 

Note. — See instructions on back of blank. 

Experiment 5 

From the time required to burn 2 cubic feet of gas 
under full pressure compute the number of feet con¬ 
sumed per hour by each size of burner. Tabulate cost 
per hour at current rate. 

A 

Experiment 6 

Compare the amount of gas consumed by a medium¬ 
sized gas burner when regulated to maintain the small- 


Laboratory G 2 tide 


11 

est possible show of ebullition in from 2 to 3 quarts 
of water with the amount consumed by the same burner 
when running at full capacity. 

What is the difference in cost per hour ? 

Experiment 7 

Determine the 

1. Number of tsp of water in tbsp. 

Number of tbsp of water in 1 cup. 

Number of cups of water in 1 quart. 

2. Number of tsp of flour in tbsp. 

Number of tbsp of flour in 1 cup. 

Number of cups of flour in 1 quart. 

(Flour to be sifted once before using.) 

Experiment 8 

1. Weight by metric system of : 

(a) 1 c flour. ( c ) 1 c water. 

( b ) 1 c sugar. (d) 1 c lard. 

2. Repeat part 1, using avoirdupois. 

From above data compute number of cups of flour 
in I pound. Of sugar. Of lard. Using standard 

measures, what variation may occur in the quantity 

of material actually taken ? 

MEANS OF APPLYING HEAT 

Temperatures 

Experiment 9 

Determine the temperatures in the instances starred 
on the next page by both Centigrade and Fahrenheit 


12 


Preparation of Food 

thermometers. Complete the tabulation as further 
observations are made.f 


Temperature of 


C. 


F. 


♦Ice and salt. 

♦Cracked ice. 

♦Refrigerator. 

♦Water from cold faucet. 

♦Room . 

♦Blood heat or lukewarm . 

(Enclose bulb of thermometer in palm of hand) 

♦Water from hot faucet. 

Fireless cooker (2 hours after being started) 

Double boiler. 

Steamer. 

Boiling water. 

Boiling sirup: 

(a) Soft ball stage ... -. 

(b) When color changes. 

Fat in which bread turns golden brown : 

(a) In 1 minute . 

(b) In 40 seconds. 

Oven in w T hich bread toasts golden browrn : 

(a) In 30 minutes. 

(b) In 5 minutes. 

(c) In 2 minutes. 


t Unless otherwise indicated, the Centigrade scale is used through¬ 
out the book. 


Experiment 10 

Cooking Temperatures 

Arrange utensils and materials for the application 
of heat as follows : 

1. Saucepan containing water. 

2. Double boiler with water in both parts. 

3. Covered steamer over saucepan of water. 

4. Saucepan containing sirup made of equal quan¬ 
tities of sugar and water. 

5. Saucepan containing fat. 



























Laboratory Guide 


13 


6. Small oven. 

7. Fit up a thermos bottle or small fireless cooker 
with a thermometer, and fill with boiling water. 

Heat each utensil (except the thermos bottle) 20 to 
30 minutes, noting the following points : 

In which cases is there a continuous rise in tem¬ 
perature ? 

In which does the temperature become constant 
at a certain point ? 

Is the constant temperature the same in all cases 
where it occurs ? 

Is there a decline in temperature in any instance ? 

What complications may follow prolonged application 
of heat ? 

Using the boiling point of water as a dividing line, 
classify the temperatures observed into high and low. 

Experiment 11 

Stand a tin measuring cup partly filled with water 
in.a bowl and surround with cracked ice. 

At what point does the temperature of the water 
become stationary ? 

Arrange a similar apparatus, but mix the ice with 
salt (1 tbsp salt to 1 c ice). 

At what points do the results in the two cases differ ? 

Compare the above freezing mixture with one made 
up of 1 part of salt to 4 parts of ice. 

Is there a difference in the final temperature ob¬ 
tained ? 

Is there a difference in the rate at which the 
temperature falls ? 


14 


Preparation of Food 


WATER 

Experiment 12 

Water as a Cleansing Agent 
Dish Was)ring 

1. Scrape all crumbs, scraps, etc., from the dishes 
into the waste jar; greasy dishes may be wiped out 
with soft paper. Dishes with dough, milk, or egg 
adhering should be put to soak in cold water. 

2. Pile all dishes of a kind together. 

3. Provide plenty of good soapy water and hot 
rinse water. 

4. Wash glassware first, china next, then silver, 
and lastly cooking utensils. 

Be sure that all are perfectly dry before putting 
away . 

5. Wash table top well, using sapolio, if necessary, 
to remove spots. 

6. Wash and rinse both dish cloth and dish towel 
and hang to dry. 


Experiment 13 

Water as a Carrier of Flavor 
1. Water Ice 

Dissolve 2 measures of sugar in 4 measures of water 
and boil a few minutes. Remove from the fire, add 
1 measure of lemon juice strained. Cool, pour into 
a suitable vessel, and surround with ice and salt. Stir 
the lemon mixture while freezing. 


Laboratory Guide 15 

Note the temperature : 

(a) Of lemon mixture at beginning of the 

process. 

(b) Of lemon ice and of the freezing mixture 
when the process is finished. 

2. Coffee 

(a) Filtered (Demonstration). 

(b) Boiled. 

For each cup of coffee to be made mix 2 tbsp of coffee 
with 1 tbsp of cold water. If desired add | tsp of beaten 
egg. Pour over this 1 c of cold water or 1 c of freshly 
boiling water. In either case maintain a simmering 
temperature for about 4 minutes; let boil up once. 
To allow it to settle, let it stand for about 10 minutes 
where it will keep hot. 

Prepare a second portion as directed above, but boil 
for 15 minutes. Explain the difference in flavor. 

3. Tea 

For each cup of tea to be prepared place 1 tsp of 
tea in a heated teapot. Pour over this 1 c of freshly 
boiling water. Keep hot for 3 minutes. 

Compare tea served at the end of 3 minutes' steep¬ 
ing with some which has been allowed to steep for 
20 minutes. 

To J c of each add 1 cc of a 10 jo solution of lead 
acetate. 

What is the precipitate ? 

Is the amount of precipitate the same in each sample ? 


16 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 14 

Preparation of Dried Fruit. (Replacement of Water 

Lost by Evaporation) 

Wash dried fruit carefully. Cover with fresh water 
and let stand in a cool place 12 hours. Put fruit with 
water in which it was soaked into a double boiler and 
cook until soft, adding a little sugar if desired. Serve 
cold. 


MILK 

References: Hutchison. Food and the Principles of 

Dietetics, Chapter VII. 

Bulletin 25, Office of Experiment Stations. 
Dairy Bacteriology. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 42. Facts about Milk. 
Farmers’ Bulletin 384. Whipped cream; 
farm butter making. 

General Observations 

Note (a) Color; (b) Odor; ( c) Taste; ( d) Reaction 
(test with litmus paper). 

Note the general characteristics of the milk in bot¬ 
tles A, B, C, D, found on the supply table, drawing 
conclusions as to freshness, richness, and adulteration. 

Experiment 15 

Specific Gravity of Milk 

Weigh 1 c of water carefully to tenths of a gram. 
Using the same cup for measuring, weigh also 1 c of 


Laboratory Guide 17 

milk. Compute the specific gravity of the milk, taking 
the weight of the water as unity. 

What conditions may affect the specific gravity of 
milk ? 


Experiment 16 

Specific Gravity of Cream 

Fill a graduated cylinder with fresh milk. Let stand 
12 hours. Compute the percentage of cream in the 
sample. Observe the relative amount of cream in a 
bottle of milk as purchased. 

What is the principle upon which a cream separator 
operates ? 


Experiment 17 

Separation of Milk Fat. Butter (Demonstration) 

Beat 1 pint “ripened” cream with a fork or egg 
beater until the fat separates out in lumps. Collect 
these into a mass. Remove to cold water and wash 
free from milk. Add 1 tbsp of salt, and cool. 

Record cost of butter obtained. 

How does the composition of butter differ from that 
of cream ? What is the composition of buttermilk ? 


Experiment 18 

1. Chill 1 c of thick cream and whip until stiff. 

2. Warm another portion and beat as above. Ex¬ 
plain the difference in results in (1) and (2). 

What is whipped cream ? 


18 Prepamtion of Food 

Mousse (Demonstration) 

To the product from (i) add 2 tbsp of sugar and 
I tsp of flavoring. Freeze. 

Note proportions used in the freezing mixture, 
method of packing, serving, etc. 


Experiment 19 

Pasteurization of Milk 

Nearly fill a clean bottle with fresh milk. Stopper 
with a clean cork or with a carefully rolled plug of 
clean cotton wool. Place the bottle in cold water, tak¬ 
ing care that the water does not reach the mouth of 
the bottle. Heat slowly until the water reaches a 
temperature of 70°. Remove from the fire, but keep 
closely covered for 30 minutes. Remove from water, 
cool quickly. Compare with boiled milk. 

Why should pasteurized milk be used within 24 hours 
after treatment ? How does this process differ from 
sterilization of milk ? 


Experiment 20 

Composition of Milk 

Carefully remove and save the cream from the 
sample of milk furnished. Warm the skimmed milk 
to about 6o°. Pour into a small bottle, and add acetic 
acid or vinegar, drop by drop, with shaking until the 
precipitate separates out well. Allow to stand until 
the precipitate settles, then filter and boil a portion 


Laboratory Guide 


19 


of the filtrate. What is the precipitate which forms 
in it on boiling ? What is the precipitate upon the 
filter ? What does the watery portion contain ? 

Filter the boiled portion and evaporate the filtrate 
to dryness. What is the product ? 

Heat a small quantity of milk in an aluminium dish 
until reduced to ash. What constituents of the sample 
have disappeared ? 

Classify the various products obtained in this ex¬ 
periment under the heads of the five food principles : 
Water, protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter. 


Experiment 21 

(a) Place a cup of fresh milk in a warm place and 
let stand until it becomes thick (24 to 48 hours). 

(b) To another cup of fresh milk (lukewarm) add 
i of a rennet tablet which has been pulverized and 
dissolved in 1 tsp water. Let stand quietly in a warm 
place until it thickens (30 to 60 minutes). 

Are samples (a) and (b) similar in appearance ? 

Are the changes in each the same ? 

Are they due to the same cause ? Test each sample 
with litmus paper. 

With a knife cut through the curd in each cup, 
dividing it off into £ inch squares. 

Which sample shows the firmer curd on standing ? 

Heat sample (a) to 7o° for 10 minutes, and compare 
with (b). 

Boil a portion of each. 


20 Preparation of Food 

What is the effect of high temperature upon proteins 
of milk ? 

Drain the remainder of each sample through cheese 
cloth. 

Compare as to texture and flavor. Classify the two 
cheeses produced. 


Experiment 22 

Heat i c of milk to boiling. Add £ rennet tablet 
prepared as in Experiment 21. Pour into a dish and let 
stand until cold. Account for the negative result. What 
is rennet ? 

Prepare individual junkets, using the proportions 
1 tsp sugar, i tsp flavoring, to 1 c milk. 

Cottage Cheese 

Prepare cottage cheese from thick sour milk as 
indicated in Experiment 21. 

How large a factor is temperature in the success 
of this preparation ? 


Chocolate 

Cook | tsp of cornstarch in 2 tbsp of water. 
Add 1 tbsp of sugar, a little salt, and £ square of un¬ 
sweetened chocolate. When the chocolate has melted 
add gradually 1 c of hot milk, stirring well. Add 
a few drops of vanilla. Keep hot and mill before 
serving. 

Compare as to cost with same recipe, but using cocoa 
instead of chocolate. 


Laboratory Grade 


21 


EGGS 

References: Farmers’ Bulletin 128 (Revised). Eggs 

and Their Uses as Food. 

Hutchison. Food and the Principles of 
Dietetics, Chapter IX. 

General Observations 

Note number of eggs of average size in 1 pound. 
Of large size. Weigh smaller eggs and note variation 
in number. Note difference in cost per pound, eggs 
at market price per dozen. 

Do you prefer to buy eggs by weight or number ? 
Why? 

What causes variation in color of shell ? Does color 
indicate variation in the composition or flavor of egg ? 

Shell 

Examine inside of shell of an egg which has been 
boiled in a solution of cochineal. What property of the 
shell does this show ? What problem does this present 
in the keeping of eggs ? 

Place a small piece of shell in a little vinegar and 
warm. What can you say as to its chemical composition ? 

Tests for Freshness 

Test weight of eggs by placing in 10 jo salt solution. 
What relation can you suggest as existing between the 
freshness of an egg and its specific gravity ? 

Note appearance of eggs when held in strong light. 
What may dark appearance indicate ? 


22 


Preparation of Food 


With what methods of preservation are you familiar ? 

(See Farmers’ Bulletin 128 (Revised). Eggs and Their 

Uses as Foodd 
/ 

Inside Structure 

1. Skin. 

2. Position of white and yolk. 

3. Describe as to color and texture. 

Experiment 23 

Effect of Heat upon White and Yolk of Egg 

Place 1 tsp of white of egg in one test tube. In a 
second tube place the same quantity of yolk of egg. 
Suspend the tubes in cold water, bringing the surface 
of the egg in the tubes a little below the level of the 
surface of the water. Heat the water carefully, noting: 

1. Temperature at which coagulation is first ap¬ 
parent. 

2. Temperature at which whole mass is coagulated. 

3. Consistency of the coagulated white at this 
temperature. 

4. Consistency of each when water reaches the 
boiling point. 

Experiment 24 

1. Place 3 eggs in 3 pints of boiling water. Cover 
closely to retain heat. Test 1 egg in 5 minutes, 
another in 7, and the third in 10, noting temperature 
at each test. 

2. Place 1 egg in 1 pint of cold water. Bring 
water to boiling point. Remove egg and test it. How 
does the result compare with that in (1) ? 


Laboratory Guide 2 3 

3. Place 1 egg in boiling water. Boil for 3 minutes. 
Remove and test. 

4. Place 1 egg in water at 75 to 8o°. Keep water 
at this temperature for 45 minutes. Remove egg and 
test. 

5. Place 1 egg in boiling water and boil for 20 min¬ 
utes. Compare with result in (4). 

Poached Eggs 

Place 1 c of water in small frying pan. Bring to 
boil, add k tsp of salt. Break an egg into a saucer and 
carefully slip it into a buttered muffin ring placed in the 
bottom of the frying pan. The water should cover the 
egg. Place the pan where the water will keep hot with¬ 
out boiling, let stand until a white film has formed over 
the top of the egg and the white is firm (about 6 min¬ 
utes). With a buttered skimmer remove the egg and 
muffin ring to a piece of buttered toast and carefully 
lift off the ring. Season with butter, salt, and pepper. 

Experiment 25 

1. Separate the white and yolk of an egg. Beat 
each for 2 minutes with a wire egg beater. Note 
difference in results. 

2. Add about 5 grams of melted butter (a scant 
teaspoon) to the white of an egg. Beat as before. 
Explain result. 

Compare the composition of the white and yolk of 
egg. Does this suggest an explanation of the results 
in (1)? 

3. Use the yolk and well-beaten white in the 
making of an omelet, as follows : 


24 


Preparation of Food 


Omelet 

i egg i tbsp water 

£ tsp salt i tsp butter 

Pepper 

Separate white and yolk of egg. Add salt to each 
and pepper to yolk. Beat yolk until thick. Add water 
and mix well. Beat whites until stiff. Fold the yolk 
into the white. Place the butter in a hot pan. Add 
the egg and cook at a low temperature. Place in hot 
oven to dry the top. Fold and turn onto hot platter. 

What property of proteid is illustrated in the pre¬ 
ceding preparation ? What is the effect of the special 
manipulation ? Would a preparation of yolks of eggs 
alone be light ? 


Experiment 26 

Egg as a Thickening Agent 

i . Soft Custard 

£ egg £ c milk 

i tbsp sugar Flavoring 
Salt 

Stir egg and sugar together until blended. Heat 
the milk and add to the egg and sugar gradually until 
evenly mixed. Stir constantly. Cook until the custard 
coats the spoon. 

In what sort of a vessel should the milk be heated 
and the cooking of the custard accomplished ? At what 
temperature should eggs and milk be cooked ? Why ? 

2. Repeat above preparation, but cook by boiling 
over the direct flame. 


Laboratory Guide 25 

3. Baked Custard 

First of the process same as in (1). After adding 
hot milk pour into custard cups. Bake in oven until 
firm. How shall proper temperature be secured? 

Experiment 27 

Egg in a Leavened Preparation 
Sponge Cake 

1 egg i c sugar 

i c flour £ tbsp lemon juice 

A few grains of salt 

Beat the white of egg to a stiff froth. Add the 
sugar, lemon juice, salt, and well-beaten yolk. Fold in 
the flour lightly. Bake in an ungreased pan. 

What should be the temperature of the oven ? Why 
should this mixture be cooked at a higher temperature 
than that used in the cooking of custard ? 


CHEESE 

Observe samples of commercial cheese, noting 
characteristics of each brand. 

Experiment 28 

1. Heat a small piece of cheese in a hot frying pan 
until it melts, taking care that it does not burn. Cool 
and note results. 

2. Melt a similar piece, using a double boiler. 
Compare with (1). 


26 


Preparation of Food 


What are the chief food constituents of cheese? 
Which of these is most affected by heat ? 


Cheese Dishes 

Illustrate suitable temperatures for cooking a com¬ 
bination of milk, eggs, and cheese by the following 
preparations : 

i. Cheese Balls 

i tbsp finely divided cheese i tsp beaten egg white 
A few grains of salt and paprika 
Cracker crumbs 

Mix together the cheese, salt, paprika, and stiffly 
beaten egg white. Form into small balls, roll in cracker 
crumbs, and fry to a delicate brown. Note inner tem¬ 
perature of balls after frying. 

2. Welsh Rarebit 

i oz cheese 2 tsp butter 

1 tbsp cream A pinch of soda 

1 tsp beaten egg Salt and pepper 

Melt the butter, add the finely divided cheese, soda, 
salt, pepper, and finally the egg diluted with the cream. 
Stir all well until smooth and creamy. Serve on bread 
lightly buttered or on toast. 


3. Cheese Souffle 


1 tbsp butter 

2 tsp flour 

i c scalded milk 


1 tbsp finely divided 
cheese 

i egg 


Salt Cayenne 

Melt butter, add flour, and when well mixed add 
gradually scalded milk. When the mixture has boiled 


Laboratory Gtiide 


27 


up thoroughly add salt, cayenne, and cheese, remove 
from fire, add well-beaten yolks of eggs, and stir until 
smooth. Cool the mixture, then fold in the whites of 
the eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered dish 
and bake 20 minutes. At what temperature ? Will 
the flour be sufficiently cooked ? 

Cheese Crackers 

Sprinkle grated cheese thinly over crackers. Season 
with salt and cayenne pepper. Place in the oven until 
the crackers are crisp. 

How does the temperature used in this preparation 
compare with temperatures used in the other cheese 
dishes ? Defend the use of a high temperature in this 
case. What can you say as to the digestibility of 
cheese dishes in general ? 


Food Equivalents 
Total Nutrients 

Using data given in Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment 
Stations : 

1. Weigh out a sufficient quantity of cheese to 
equal a quart of milk in total nutrients. 

2. Determine the weight and number of eggs re¬ 
quired to equal the above. 

3. Compare the cost of total nutrients as obtained 
from these three food materials. 

4. Estimate nutritive value of the small sponge 
cake. 


28 


Preparation of Food 
MEAT 


References: Bulletin 162. U. S. Dep’t of Agri., Office 

of Experiment Stations. The Influence 
of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of 
Meats. 

Hutchison. Food and the Principles of 
Dietetics, Chapter IV. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 34. Meats: Composi¬ 
tion and Cooking. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 85. Fish as P"ood. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 182. Poultry as Food. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 391. Economical Use of 
Meat in the Home. 

Make reference drawings of the charts showing the 
cutting of meat, recording the suggested uses for each 
cut. 

Structure of Meat 
General Observations 

1. Observe the gross structure of different cuts of 
meat. 

2. Observe structure of lean meat as shown in an 
uncooked portion and in boiled meat. Make drawings 
of a longitudinal and cross-section of muscle. 

3. Make drawings of cross-section and of longi¬ 
tudinal section of muscle as seen under the microscope 
(Stained sections.) 

4. Observe structure of fatty tissue. 

Experiment 29 

i. Take a piece of meat cut from a leg of beef. 

(a) Reserve one third. 



Laboratory Guide 


29 


( b ) With a dull knife scrape out the soft part 
from the remainder, shaping it into a cake. 

(« c) Make a similar cake of the fibrous part 
remaining. 

(d) Cook the three samples in a hot frying pan, 
turning them frequently to prevent burning. 

Compare the three and explain differences. 

Compare with a piece of similar meat which has 
been cooked in water until tender. 

2. Repeat processes outlined in (1), but using 
meat cut from the tenderloin. 

What causes toughness in meat ? 

Experiment 30 

Composition of Meat 

1. Cook a piece of beef containing a large amount 
of connective tissue in sufficient water to cover it. When 
the meat begins to fall apart remove from the water and 
cool. 

What constituent of the meat has partially or wholly 
disappeared ? Cool the broth and place it near ice until 
it is thoroughly chilled. Explain its consistency. What 
are the small particles seen in it ? 

2. Repeat process in (1), using a piece of beef con¬ 
taining a relatively small amount of connective tissue. 

Compare (1) and (2), noting appearance of the cooked 
meat and consistency of the cold broth. Note the taste 
of both. 

Experiment 31 

1. Take about 40 grams of finely minced lean beef. 
(a) Reserve about 5 grams, forming it into 


a cake. 


30 


Preparation of Food 


f) Stir the remainder up well for several min¬ 
utes with £ c of cold water. Strain through cheese cloth. 
Add a second portion of water and repeat the treatment 
until the meat has lost most of its color. 

(c) Press out the water, reserving the fibre. 

(d) Reserve one-fourth of the water extract. 
Note reaction. 

f) Heat the remainder, carefully noting the 
temperature: 

(1) At which small white flakes begin to 

appear. 

(2) When a heavy precipitate appears. 

(3) When the red color disappears. 

Continue the heating until the liquid boils. Strain 

through cheese cloth. Wash the precipitate on the 
cloth with a little water, but do not add the washings 
to the filtrate. Compare above temperature with tem¬ 
peratures noted in work with other foods studied. 

2. (a) Pan broil a portion of the extracted meat, 

noting odor and taste. 

( b ) Taste the washed precipitate from the water 

extract. 

{c) Taste the clear broth. Which of the above 
has the most characteristic flavor ? 

id) Pan broil the reserved sample (a) in part 1 
of this experiment. Note odor and taste. Pour a little 
of the reserved sample (d), part 1, into a hot frying pan 
and note the odor. Do the same with some of the clear 
cooked broth. What constituents seem to give to meat 
its characteristic flavor ? What can you say as to the 
nutritive value of the dry meat and of the precipitate 


Laboratory Guide 


31 


which formed in the broth on boiling? Would this 
broth gelatinize on cooling ? Why ? What can you 
say as to the dietetic value of flavor in food ? 

Experiment 32 

1. (a) Place 3 or 4 ounces of lean beef in the top 
of the double boiler in sufficient cold water to cover it. 
Place over cold water, and heat, cooking 30 minutes 
from the time the water boils in the lower part of the 
boiler. 

( b ) Duplicate the above arrangement, but have 
the water boiling when the meat is added. See to it 
that every part of the surface of the meat is covered 
instantly by the water ; cook for 30 minutes. 

(1 c ) Remove the pieces of meat, and pour the 
broths into suitable dishes for comparison. Is there 
a marked difference between the two ? Explain. Is 
there a marked difference in the flavor of the two 
pieces of meat ? Compare with original weight and 
compute percentage of loss. What are some of the 
constituents lost by cooking meat according to each of 
these methods ? 

2. (a) Sear a small piece of lean beef quickly on 
all sides in a hot frying pan. Cook 3 minutes. 

(b) Place a similar piece in a cold frying pan 
and heat slowly for 5 minutes without turning, then 
turn and finish the cooking. Remove the meat and 
add l c of water to each pan. Heat the water, stirring 
well until all the dried juices adhering to the pans are 
taken up by the water. Compare the washings from 
the two pans. 


32 


Preparation of Food 


What constituents may be lost in part by even the 
most careful pan broiling ? Account for the difference 
in flavor between meat which has been cooked in water 
and that which has been broiled. 

Preparation of Tender Meat 

Explain use of terms tender and tough as applied 
to meat. What are the objects in cooking tender meat ? 

Broiled Steak 

Complete the following tabulation : 

1. Cost of steak. 

2. Weight as purchased. 

3. Weight when trimmed for broiling. 

4. Weight after broiling. 

5. Percent of loss in cooking. 

6. Weight of refuse. 

7. Cost per pound of edible portion. 

See that the steak is cut at least 1 1 inches in 
thickness. Wipe clean with a damp cloth and trim off 
excess of fat. Broil over live coals or under gas, turn¬ 
ing each half minute for 3 minutes, after which com¬ 
plete the cooking at a lower temperature, turning every 
minute or two. The total time required varies from 
8 to 20 minutes, according to the thickness of the 
steak and the degree of cooking desired. 

Remove to a hot platter and salt evenly. A little 
salt previously sprinkled over the bottom of the dish 
will season the under side of the steak. Serve with 
any sauce liked, but avoid masking the flavor of the 
meat itself by the addition of stronger ones. 



Laboratory Guide 3 3 

Describe the difference in color of rare meat and 
that which is underdone (raw). 

Beef Roast 

Tabulate observations as for broiled steak. 

See that the meat selected is clean. Trim off any 
ragged portions, but do not remove the fat. Place on 
a rack in the pan, arranging to have the larger cut 
surfaces exposed to the direct heat of the oven. The 
part with the greatest surface of fat should be placed 
uppermost, so that the melting fat will accomplish the 
basting. 

Place in a hot oven — 250°—maintaining this 
temperature for 15 to 20 minutes, after which the heat 
should be lowered to about 190° and the roasting con¬ 
tinued, allowing from 1 5 to 30 minutes for each pound, 
according to shape of the cut and the degree of cooking 
desired. 

A thermometer may be inserted in the center of the 
roast and the inner temperature noted. 

What is the lowest temperature at which the meat 
could be termed cooked ? What is the highest tem¬ 
perature at which it may still be regarded as rare ? 
What temperature indicates that it is well done, i. e. f 
has lost all red color ? What are the unavoidable losses 
under the conditions of the cooking ? Are broiling and 
oven roasting comparable processes ? What is true 
roasting ? What is pan broiling ? 


34 Preparation of Food 

Preparation of Tough Meat 

1. What must be accomplished in the preparation 
of tough meat if the results are to be satisfactory ? Is 
the process outlined in Experiment 29 a practicable one 
for the housekeeper ? Suggest circumstances where 
it might be useful. What is the difference between 
scraped meat and that which has been chopped, ground, 
or pounded ? 

2. In Experiment 30 what was accomplished in 
the cooking of sample (1) ? From your previous experi¬ 
ments with the constituents of meat what temperature 
would you suggest as likely to afford the best results 
in the long cooking ? 

Hamburg Steak 

Prepare the meat by removing gristle and either 
chopping or grinding it. If meat is lean add some suet 
or other fat (about -|). Season and shape into cakes 
about | of an inch in thickness. Pan broil (8 to 10 
minutes), turning frequently. 

Beef Loaf 

Prepare meat as above. Shape into a loaf. Place 
small pieces of fat meat on top to accomplish the bast¬ 
ing and cook in the oven, following in general the 
directions given for the rib roast. 

What difference may be expected between the above 
preparations and a tender steak or roast ? 

Brown Stew 

Cut lean beef into inch cubes (neck oeef will be 
found quite satisfactory). Season each piece, dredge 


Laboratory Guide 


35 


thoroughly with flour, and brown on all sides in a fry¬ 
ing pan, using a little suet to prevent sticking and to 
give necessary fat. Add sufficient hot water to cover 
the meat, and when this has boiled up once, turn all 
into a double boiler and cook for 3 hours. One hour 
before the stew is finished add any vegetables liked, 
cutting these also into cubes. ( Exception . — Potatoes 
require a less time for cooking.) 

Pot Roast 

1. Sear a cut of beef (3 to 4 lbs. of a shoulder cut) 
in an iron kettle, using suet as above. Season, and add 
i c water. Arrange to carry on the cooking slowly for 
4 or 5 hours, adding water from time to time if necessary. 

2. Sear and season meat as above, but do not add 
water. Transfer to a double boiler and finish the 
cooking. Compare the two methods as to conven¬ 
ience. Explain any differences in results. 

Veal 

What are the chief differences between beef and 
veal ? What methods used in the cooking of beef are 
entirely unsuited to the preparation of veal ? Why ? 

Veal Cutlets 

Cut veal steak into portions of uniform size and 
shape, or use veal chops. Pound each piece lightly. 
Season with salt and pepper, re-shape, dip in beaten 
egg, and cover with bread crumbs. Saute, turning 
often until browned and well done (about 8 minutes). 

Is the coating of egg more efficient than simply sear- 


36 


Preparation of Food 


ing the surface of the meat ? Compute difference in cost 
of edible portion of rib chops and of cutlets from round 
steaks. 

Pork 

What is an important essential in the cooking of 
pork ? 

Broiled Chops 

Broil chops, either mutton, lamb, or pork, following 
in general the directions given for broiling steak. Why 
should these not be served rare ? 


Poultry 


Demonstration. 


Chicken 

i . Roast. 

2. Fried. 

3. Fricassee. 

Note weight of fowl before and after it is drawn 

and compute increase in price per pound. 


Types of Cured Meat 

What are the inevitable effects of the use of salt in 
the permanent preservation of meat ? Compare with 
smoking and drying. 

In the cooking of cured meats is it possible or desir¬ 
able to remove all traces of the preserving agent ? 

Corned Beef 

Select a piece of beef having a good proportion of 
fat. Wash well in plenty of cold water. Place in a 
large-sized vessel, cover with cold water, bring gradu- 



Laboratory Guide 


37 


ally to the simmering point. If it is suspected that the 
brine used in the curing was very strong, this water 
may be drained off and replaced by fresh water of 
about the same temperature. Continue the simmering 
for 5 or 6 hours. Let cool in the water in which it 
was cooked. Why ? Afterwards drain well, slice very 
thin and serve. 

Boiled Ham 

Process essentially the same as outlined above for 
corned beef. 

Bacon 

Pan broil thin slices of bacon until crisp. Drain off 
the fat well before serving. 

What can you say as to the digestibility of bacon ? 
Why is no effort made to remove the traces of the 
preservatives used ? Compare with dried beef. 

Salted Fish (Mackerel or White Fish) 

Wash the fish free from salt in plenty of cold water. 
Allow to soak in fresh water for some hours (6 to io). 
Place in a pan of cold water, bring to the simmering 
point, and cook for 15 minutes. Drain carefully, sea¬ 
son well with butter and serve hot, or an egg sauce 
may be used. 

Egg Sauce 

3 tbsp butter 1 c milk or water 

1 tbsp flour Salt and pepper 

2 eggs cooked hard 

Heat the butter in a saucepan until it bubbles; 
stir in the flour, mixing thoroughly; add milk, salt and 
pepper. Let boil up well, remove from the fire, and stir 
in the eggs cut into quarters. Pour over the fish. 


38 


Preparation of Food 


Codfish Balls 

i c of salt codfish cut small. Remove all skin and 
bones and wash well in cold water. Add to the fish 
an equal quantity of raw potato cut small. Cover with 
boiling water and cook until potatoes are done. Drain 
dry and mash fine. Add i tsp butter and whites of 
2 eggs. Fry in small portions. Drain well. 

Left-Overs 

What is the chief object sought for in preparation 
of dishes from food materials remaining from their first 
serving? What principle should guide in determining 
the manner of utilizing these materials ? What must 
be avoided in the second cooking of meat ? What can 
you say as to the digestibility of so-called made dishes ? 
Why can no definite recipes be formulated for the use 
of left-overs ? 

Experiment 33 

From suggestions obtained from your own experi¬ 
ence, from cook books, or from the instructor, devise 
four ways for utilizing cold cooked beef. Record all 
extra food materials and seasonings used. Suggest 
cases in which the left-over itself may be utilized as 
a seasoning. Determine if the results are worth the 
extra materials, the time, and the fuel used. 

Consomme 

Use the broth from meats as the foundation of a 
clear soup. What is the chief dietetic value of this 
preparation ? 


Laboratory Guide 39 

Fish 

Experiment 34 

Place a small piece of fish in boiling water and boil 
rapidly for 15 minutes. Compare with the results 
which would be obtained from a similar treatment of 
beef. What is suggested as to the structure and 
composition of fish ? 

Boiled Fish 

Place fish on wire rack, and lower into boiling 
water to which has been added 1 tsp salt and 1 tbsp 
vinegar for each quart of water. Simmer for 15 min¬ 
utes. Drain. Serve with an acid sauce. 

Baked Fish 

“ Clean, sprinkle with salt and pepper inside and 
out, stuff, and truss. Brush over with melted butter 
and dredge with flour. Place small pieces of salt pork 
over the fish and bake 1 k hours, having the oven very 
hot (275 0 ) for the first 15 minutes, lowering to about 
200° for the remainder of the time. Baste occasionally 
if needed. Serve with Hollandaise sauce.” 

Compare with veal steak as to cost of proteid. 
How do the time per pound for roasting and the oven 
temperatures compare with those used for beef roast ? 

Fish Stuffing 

“ 3 c of bread crumbs 2 eggs 

1 tsp chopped parsley l tsp each salt and pepper 

2 tsp chopped onion (or l c butter 

1 tsp onion juice) 

“ Moisten the crumbs with the butter melted in a 


40 


Preparation of Food 


little hot water. Add the seasoning and lastly the 
eggs well beaten.” 

Hollandaise Sauce 

‘4 c butter Few grains cayenne pepper 

Yolks of 2 to 4 eggs 2 c boiling water 
J tsp salt Juice of ^ lemon 

“ Cream the butter; add the yolks of the eggs one 
at a time and beat into the butter thoroughly; add the 
salt, cayenne, and water, and cook in double boiler, 
stirring constantly, until the sauce thickens ; then add 
the lemon juice and remove from the fire. The num¬ 
ber of yolks depends upon the consistency desired in 
the sauce; lift the saucepan from the water, from time 
to time, lest the sauce be overcooked.” 


GELATIN 
Experiment 35 

Prepare soup stock from a knuckle of veal. Cool. 
Note consistency. 

To Clarify Soup Stock 

Remove fat from veal stock. Heat the latter care¬ 
fully, and clarify by mixing with white of egg and 
bringing quickly to boiling point. Strain. Season and 
serve. 

Note. — Use lean veal from the soup bone in making of cro¬ 
quettes, formulating a method and giving temperature of fat for 
frying. 




Laboratory Guide 41 

Experiment 36 

1. Cover 1 tsp of gelatin with cold water and let 
stand 10 minutes. 

2. Cover 1 tsp of gelatin with hot water. 

3. Carefully heat mixture (1). 

4. Cool (3). 

5. When (3) begins to stiffen beat with Dover 
egg beater. 

Carefully note results of each of the processes above. 

Compare each with effect of similar process upon 
albumin. 

Experiment 37 

Kinds of Commercial Gelatins 

Compare the various commercial gelatins as to effi¬ 
ciency and cost by preparing 1 jo, 3 jo, and 5 jo solutions 
of each, using 1 tsp of gelatin as a basis. 

Experiment 38 

1. Soak d tsp of gelatin in 1 tbsp of water. Dis¬ 
solve 1 tbsp of sugar in enough hot water to make 
i cup. Add soaked gelatin. Continue heating gently 
until gelatin dissolves. Cool and set on ice. 

2. Same as (1), but use 1 tbsp of lemon juice as 
part of the liquid. 

3. Same as (1), but use 1 tbsp of fresh grated pine¬ 
apple. 

4. Same as (1), but use 1 tbsp of canned pineapple. 

Compare results and explain. What is the nutritive 

value of gelatin ? What is its chief value in the 
preparation of food ? 

From material used above prepare a small pudding, 
also formulate a recipe on the basis of a quart of liquid. 


42 


Preparation of Food 
FATS AND OILS 


References: Leach. Food Inspection and Analysis. 

Bulletin 77. U. S. Dept, of Agr., Bureau 
of Chemistry. Olive Oil and Its Sub¬ 
stitutes. 

Hutchison. Food and the Principles of 
Dietetics. 

Types of Commercial Fats and Oils 

Observe the samples shown. of some of the more 
common fats and oils, noting source, physical charac¬ 
teristics, composition, price, and use. 

1. Compare butter, butterine, and oleomargarine, 
verifying the following test for their identification : 

“Spoon Test” 

Place a small portion (about .5 gram) of the sample 
to be tested in a tablespoon and melt over a small 
flame. “Then, increasing the heat, bring to as brisk 
a boil as possible, and after the boiling has begun, stir 
the contents of the spoon thoroughly , not neglecting the 
outer edges, two or three times at intervals during 
the boiling, always shortly before the boiling ceases. 

“Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, 
sputtering (more or less) like a mixture of grease and 
water when boiled, and produce no foam, or but very 
little. Renovated butter produces usually a very small 
amount. 

“ Genuine butter boils usually with less noise, and 
produces an abundance of foam." 

2. Preparation of fat from‘fatty tissues. “Ren¬ 
dering.” 



Laboratory Guide 


43 


Weigh fat from beef or pork and cut into small 
pieces. Heat slowly over a low flame until the fat 
separates out and the connective tissue remaining be¬ 
gins to brown slightly. Drain through cheese cloth, 
pressing well to obtain as much as possible of the 
clear fat. Cool and weigh. Compare cost per pound 
with cost of commercial fats. 

3. Note appearance of lard : 

(a) Heated to 175-180°. 

(b) Heated to 18o° for 30 minutes. 

( c) Heated to 275°. 

Suggest possible chemical changes in each. 

What does (b) suggest as to effect of household 
conditions upon fat used for frying? 

Clarifying Fat 

Heat the fat, add a few slices of raw potato, letting 
them fry until they begin to brown. Pour the fat slowly 
through suitable strainer, rejecting the settlings. 

Explain the scorching of fat. Are the processes of 
clarifying chemical or physical ? 

Experiment 39 

Fats in Combination 

1. Melt 1 tbsp of fat in a frying pan. Add to it 
1 tbsp of flour, mixing well. When thoroughly mixed, 
but not browned, add 1 c of hot water and let boil up 
once. 

2. Melt 1 tbsp of fat in 1 c of water. When boil¬ 
ing add 1 tbsp of flour. 

Explain the difference between (1) and (2). 


44 


Preparation of Food 


Experiment 40 

Mix i tsp of fat thoroughly with 3 tsp of flour. 
Form into a cake and bake. Explain the condition 
of the preparation. 

Prepare puff paste according to directions given in 
any good cook book. Explain the necessity for the 
special manipulation. 

Pie Crust 

Mix 1 measure of cold fat with 3 measures of flour, 
add a little salt, then make into a dough with the least 
possible amount of cold water (1 measure or less). Do 
not knead it or in any way attempt to have it perfectly 
smooth. Roll out about | of an inch thick, line a pie 
pan with this, trim off the edges and bake at a tem¬ 
perature which will insure its being a light brown in 
10 minutes. Fill with any cream mixture liked. 


Lemon Cream Filling 


“ 1 csugar 

5 tbsp flour. Cornstarch 
may be used instead of 
flour (more or less ?) 


2 c boiling water 
2 egg yolks 
1 tsp butter 

1 lemon, juice and grated 
rind 

“ Mix the sugar, flour, butter, and lemon, add the 
hot water and let boil up. Place in double boiler and 
cook 10 minutes. [When shall the egg be added?] 
Fill into the crust and cover with a meringue made 
of the whites of the eggs and 4 tbsp of sugar. Brown 
lightly in the oven.” 


Laboratory Guide 
Frying 

Development of Flavor 


45 


Prepare a plain doughnut mixture as given below. 
Bake a part of this and fry the remainder. Compare 
as to flavor and texture. 


Doughnuts 


t c sugar 
i egg 
i tsp soda 
Salt 


i c sour milk 
i tbsp butter 
i tsp baking powder 
i tsp cinnamon 
Flour (note amount) 

Mix sugar, butter, cinnamon, beaten egg, milk, and 
salt in the order named. Stir in £ c of the flour sifted 
with the baking powder, adding enough more flour to 
make a soft dough. Use this for the making of 12 
doughnuts. Weigh frying fat before and after using. 
Compute cost of doughnuts per dozen. 


Saratoga Potatoes 

Pare potatoes of medium size; slice very thin into 
cold water. Let stand until crisp. Dry and fry quickly. 
Drain well and sprinkle with fine salt. Examine the 
water in which the potatoes were soaked. What food 
constituent has been largely wasted ? 

Compare with boiled potato as to percentage com¬ 
position. 

Salmon Croquettes 

Suggest the materials which must be added to 
cooked salmon in order that it may be handled and 
cooked as croquettes. Prepare and serve. 


46 


Preparation of Food 


Salad Dressings 
i. French Dressing 

“ 2 tbsp vinegar i tsp salt 

6 tbsp oil i tsp pepper 

Few grains of paprika 

“ Mix together salt, pepper, and oil. Add acid 
slowly and beat until an emulsion is formed.” 

2. Mayonnaise 

“ i egg yolk i tbsp lemon juice 

i tsp salt i tbsp vinegar 

i c oil 2 tsp mustard (if desired) 

Few grains red pepper 

“ Mix together egg yolk and condiments. Add 
portion of lemon juice and when well blended add the 
oil, drop by drop, beating constantly. After the mix¬ 
ture thickens add alternately the remainder of the acid 
and oil.” 

Explain the nature of these two products. Use 
them in the making of suitable salads. 

BREAD 
Short Process 

i cake compressed yeast 1 i c water (or equal quan- 
i tsp sugar tities of milk and water) 

i tsp butter i tsp salt 

3 c flour 

Have the water lukewarm (about 37°). Soak the 
yeast cake in one-half of it until thoroughly blended. 

1 In order to secure rapid fermentation an entire cake of yeast may 
be used in the laboratory work. 


Laboratory Guide 


47 


Pour remainder of water over the salt, butter, and sugar 
in the mixing bowl. Add flour to make a soft dough, 
place on board, and knead until smooth and elastic to 
the touch. Place in bowl in a warm place (about 3 y°) 
and let rise until double its original bulk. Shape into 
loaf, place in bread pan, and let rise at same temper¬ 
ature. When light bake from 40 to 50 minutes. 
Temperature of oven should range from 210° to 190°. 

What are the proteins of flour ? How may they be 
separated from the flour ? Compare them with other 
forms of proteid studied. What is yeast ? What is 
the effect upon yeast of low temperature ? Of high 
temperature ? Discuss different forms of yeast. 


DEMONSTRATION 

Present to the class some phase of the work done 
during the course, illustrating the principles involved 
by a suitable demonstration. 

This exercise includes a discussion of the principle 
which is being demonstrated, a description of materials 
used, together with the preparation and serving of the 
dish which is to illustrate the principle. Consultation 
should be had with the instructor and a definite outline 
of the proposed exercise handed in for criticism some 
time before the demonstration is to be given. 


SECOND SEMESTER (COURSE VI) 

ECONOMIC USES OF FOOD 


PRESERVATION OF FOOD 1 

References Prudden. Story of the Bacteria. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 125. Protection of Food 
from Injurious Temperatures. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 203. Canned Fruit, 
Preserves, and Jellies. 

Experiment 41 

Pare ripe peaches, cutting them into quarters. Place 
5 or 6 pieces in a small dish and expose at room tem¬ 
perature as a check upon the experiments which follow. 

1. Place a sample in the refrigerator. 

2. Cover a slice evenly with ground spice. 

3. Cover with sugar. 

4. Cover with salt. 

5. Suspend a slice upon a toothpick or fine wire 
in the sunshine or cool oven to dry entire surface. 

Experiment 42 

1. Place a slice of fruit in a small bottle. Cover 
with water, and seal. 

2. Prepare a second sample as above; heat in 
steamer for 30 minutes. 

3. Cover a slice with alcohol. 

J For preservation of animal foods see Course I. 

48 


Laboratory Guide 


49 


4. Cover a slice with vinegar. 

5. Cover a slice with syrup made by boiling 2 parts 
sugar and 1 part water. 

Examine samples in Experiments 41 and 42 at the 
end of a week, comparing them with the check. 

What are the principal causes of decomposition in 
food materials ? 

Classify the means which have been employed for 
retarding or preventing bacterial action. 

Experiment 43 

During the work in application of sterilization which 
follows compare the various kinds of fruit jars offered 
in the market as to efficiency, convenience, and cost. 

Application of Sterilization 
Canning Peaches 

Prepare peaches by paring and dividing into halves. 

1. Place prepared fruit in cans; cover with syrup 
made by using 2 parts sugar to 4 parts water. Adjust 
covers loosely. Steam until tender, filling in more syrup 
if necessary. Seal. 

2. Same as (1), but using water instead of syrup. 

3. Place prepared fruit in boiling syrup in open 
vessel. Cook until clear, fill into sterilized cans and 
seal. 

Keep a record of the amount of fruit (as purchased) 
used in filling each can. Compute cost of fruit, sugar, 
can, and estimate cost of gas consumed. 

Examine samples after 2 or 3 months, comparing the 


50 Preparation of Food 

results of the three methods. Test effect of light on 
canned goods. 

Compare also with commercial canned peaches both 
as to quality and cost. 

Canning Tomatoes 

1. Scald and remove skins and core from ripe 
tomatoes (about 2 lbs); cut in quarters and cook 
15 minutes in their own juice. Dip them from the 
juice and fill into the jars. Seal. 

2. Prepare tomatoes (1 lb) as in (1), but do not 
quarter them. Place them in the jars, pressing them 
down carefully. Fill jar with' strained tomato juice 
(left from (1)); steam 30 minutes. Seal. 

Tomato Juice 

Wash ripe tomatoes, remove core, and cut into small 
pieces. Cook until thoroughly softened ; rub through a 
sieve or colander to remove skins and seeds. Re-heat; 
fill into jars and seal. 

Grape Juice 

Wash 1 lb grapes, pick from stems, add £ their 
volume of water, and cook below the boiling point 
until seeds begin to show. Strain out juice, add a 
second volume of water to pulp, and cook as before. 
Strain out juice, mixing with first portion. Add | 
volume of sugar, reheat, and seal. 

Prolonged Sterilization 
Canned Beans 

Prepare green beans (f lb for pint jar) by washing 
wed ana removing the tips of the pods and the strings. 


Laboratory Guide 


51 


Break into pieces about f inch in length. Place in cans 
(pint), filling can up with water to which has been added 
2 tsp of salt. Screw the covers down tight. Steam 
4 hours. Let stand in steamer until cool. 

Corn 

Select perfect corn; free from silk, cut from the 
cob, adding i to 1 water and 1 tsp sugar to each pint 
can. Screw down the covers. Steam 4 hours. 


Use of Preservatives (Spices) 
Tomato Catsup 


1 oz whole pepper corns 
1 oz whole allspice 
i oz whole cloves 


1 gal tomato juice 
1 qt cider vinegar 
1 lb brown sugar 
4 oz salt \ oz whole ginger 

1 oz ground mustard 

Add the other ingredients to the tomato juice, tying 
the whole spices in a piece of cheese cloth. Simmer for 
ii hours. Bottle. 

Sweet Pickle 


Pare the fruit and cut into halves or quarters. If 
very hard steam until tender. Cook until clear in syrup 
made of | c vinegar, ^ lb sugar, with spices to suit 
taste. Skim out fruit and place in jars. Boil the syrup 
until reduced to its original volume and pour over fruit. 


Crabapple Jelly 

1. Wash apples (1 lb), remove stem and blossom 
end, and cut in quarters. Add one-half as much water 
as fruit. Boil until soft. Mash, pour into jelly bag 


52 


Preparation of Food 


and let drip. Measure the juice, add an equal amount 
of sugar, and boil until flakes of jelly drop from the 
spoon. 

2. Cook the pulp with a second volume of water, 
making jelly as above. Compare the two products. 

What constituents must be present in a given fruit 
in order to produce a jelly ? 

3. Make jelly, using beet sugar. 

Fruit Butter 

Rub the cooked apples remaining from the jelly 
through a colander to remove skins and seeds. Add 
to this pulp any juice remaining from the jelly-making. 
Use sugar in the proportion of 2 parts sugar to 3 parts 
pulp, with ground spices as liked. Cook until a glaze 
forms upon the surface of a few drops when cooled upon 
a plate. Put away in jelly glasses or jars. 

Preservation by Drying 

Pare fruit of good flavor. Cut into quarters or 
eighths, according to size of fruit. Remove cores care¬ 
fully and place the fruit to dry upon a plate over boil¬ 
ing water. Turn the fruit several times during first 

2 hours. Continue the drying over steam for from 

3 to 5 hours, then place fruit loosely in a cheese cloth 
bag and hang in a current of air, stirring the contents 
of the bag occasionally until thoroughly dry. Pack 
in boxes. What constituents of the fruit have been 
affected by the drying ? 


Laboratory Guide 


53 


CARBOHYDRATES 

References: Hutchison. Food and the Principles of 

Dietetics, Chapters X, XI, XII, XIII, 
XIV, XV. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 249. Cereal Breakfast 
Foods. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 73. Losses in the Cook¬ 
ing of Vegetables. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 93. Sugar as Food. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 112. Bread and the 
Principles of Breadmaking. 

Farmers’ Bulletin 256. Preparation of 
Vegetables for the Table. 

Typical Forms of Carbohydrates 


Monosaccharids 


Disaccharids 


Dextrose. 

< 

Levulose. 

Sucrose. 

< Lactose. 
Maltose. 


Polysaccharids 


’ Starch. 
Dextrin. 
Glycogen. 
. Cellulose. 


Experiment 44 

General Observations 

Observe the general properties of the various com¬ 
mercial offerings of sugars, syrups, starches, etc., at 
hand. Classify each, indicating cases where the com¬ 
mercial product is made up from two or more classes 
of carbohydrates. 






54 


Preparation of Food 

Experiment 45 

Chemical Reactions 

1. Test each one of the typical forms of carbo¬ 
hydrates with Fehling’s test as follows : 

To l c water add a small quantity (less than i f /o) of 
the material to be tested. Stir well with a glass rod. 
Heat. Add a few drops of the CuS 0 4 solution, then 
add the KOH solution until the mixture takes on a 
bluish color. Boil. In which cases is there a precipi¬ 
tate formed (yellowish to red) ? 

2. To a dilute solution of cane sugar as above add 
a few drops of lemon juice, vinegar, or other acid. Boil 
5 minutes. Test as above. What change is brought 
about in cane sugar by heating it with an acid ? 

To a mixture of starch and water add acid as above, 
but continue the boiling from 15 to 20 minutes, adding 
water to keep up to the original volume. Test. What 
is the effect of heating starch with an acid ? What com¬ 
mercial use is made of this principle ? 

(Demonstration by instructor.) 

To a small quantity of cellulose (filter paper or fine 
cotton wool) add concentrated sulphuric acid slowly with 
stirring until the mass becomes homogeneous. Dilute 
with water. Boil 40 minutes to 1 hour. Test. 

What is the effect of strong acid upon cellulose ? 

Experiment 46 

Iodine Test 

Test each carbohydrate as prepared in Experiment 45 
by adding to a small portion a drop or two of iodine. 

In which cases is there a blue coloration ? 

For what substance is this a test ? 


55 


Laboratory Guide 

Cane Sugar 
Experiment 47 

Solubility 

r. i c of cane sugar add cold water to dissolve. 

2. i c of cane sugar add hot water to dissolve. 
Record amount of water necessary in each case. 

Experiment 48 

Crystallization 

Mix (i) and (2) above and add 1 tbsp of water. 
Divide into three portions, A, B, and C. 

1. Boil (A) 5 minutes. Pour in bottle and let stand. 

2. To (B) add i tsp of one of the acids suggested 
above. Boil 5 minutes, pour into 2-oz. bottle and let 
stand. 

3. To (C) add 25 percent glucose and boil as in 
(A) and (B). Let stand. Explain results. 

Experiment 49 

Effect of Heat on Cane Sugar 

1. Place i c of sugar in an omelet pan, and stir 
constantly over a moderate fire until melted. 

(a) Remove 1 tsp quickly to a cool plate. 
Product = barley sugar. 

(b) Continue heating remainder until it becomes 
a light brown color. Cool a little of this and compare 
with (a) as to taste and texture. 

Add i c of water to (b) and boil to a syrup. 
Bottle for use. 

2. Boiling. Dissolve i c of sugar in J c of water. 
(Solutions remaining from Experiment 47 may be used.) 


56 Preparation of Food 

Boil carefully, arranging to note the temperature at 
which the syrup: 

(a) Forms a thread when dropped from the 

spoon. 

( b ) Forms a soft ball when dropped into cold 

water. 

( c ) Hardens to a brittle mass in cold water. 

(d) Turns to a light brown. 

Arrange also to remove a portion (about i tbsp) to 
a small dish at each stage of the heating. 

Compare the different products, and suggest uses 
for each. 

Applications 

Syrup 

Take J c of sugar. Dissolve in water and heat to 
boiling, noting the amount of water required to make 
a syrup of proper consistency for table use. Record 
amount of syrup. 

Note. — Flavor the syrup with a little caramel and bring it to 
a comparable consistency with the sample of commercial table syrup 
upon supply table. 

Compare as to flavor and cost. 

Determine the minimum of glucose required to pre¬ 
vent crystallization for one week in the syrup prepared. 

Peanut Brittle 

Heat 1 c of granulated sugar in an omelet pan 
over a low flame, stirring constantly until it is melted 
to a syrup. Remove from fire, add quickly | c of 
chopped peanut kernels, and pour at once into a warm 
buttered pan. 


Laboratory Guide 


57 


Fondant 

1. Dissolve i c of sugar in \ c of water. Add 
Dg tsp of cream of tartar. Boil to soft ball stage, tak¬ 
ing care that the syrup does not form crystals on the 
side of the pan. Let stand till cool, then beat with 
spoon to a soft, creamy mass. Remove from the sauce¬ 
pan and mold with the hands. Place in a bowl; cover 
bowl closely, and let stand until the next laboratory 
period. 

2. Use i tsp of glucose instead of the cream of 
tartar. The other ingredients and the manipulation 
same as in (i). 

3. Same as (1) and (2), but omitting both cream 
of tartar and glucose. 

Test the sugar used in (3) and also the resulting 
mass for invert sugar. Explain. 

Cream Mints 

Melt fondant (1), (2), or (3) over hot water, and 
flavor with a few drops of essence of peppermint. (Be 
careful not to use too much.) 

Drop the mixture from the tip of a spoon onto oiled 
paper. 

Note. — When cold weigh carefully and compute the cost per 
pound. 

Chocolate Creams 

Mold fondant (1), (2), and (3) into small cones. 
When firm coat them with unsweetened chocolate 
melted in a dish over hot water. Cool upon oiled 
paper. Compute cost per pound. 

Compare the three preceding confections with com¬ 
mercial candies of the same price per pound. 


58 


Preparation of Food 


Experiment 50 

Sweetening Power of Sugars 

Prepare i c of apple juice as for jelly. Divide into 
3 portions, (a), (b), and (c). 

Add 2 tbsp cane sugar to (a) and boil 5 minutes. 
Cool. 

Add same quantity of sugar to (b) cold, stirring well. 

Add 2 tbsp crystallized glucose to ( c ), stirring until 
dissolved. 

Compare the 3 samples as to sweetness. 

Compare cane sugar with glucose. 

What sugars are probably * present in the other 
sample ? 

Discuss inversion of sugar in cooking. 

Glace Nuts or Fruit 

Boil I c of sugar in £ c of water to the brittle or 
“hard crack” stage. Remove the saucepan from the 
fire, setting it into a pan of hot water during the dip¬ 
ping of the nuts or fruit. Hold the fruit by the stem 
and the nuts upon a long pin while dipping them in 
the syrup. Cool upon oiled paper. 

Weigh when hard enough to handle, and compute 
cost per pound. 

Is the syrup remaining unused waste or refuse ? 
What is probably the chief item of cost in the prepara¬ 
tion of commercial glace nuts ? 




Laboi'atory Guide 

Starch 

Structure 


59 


Examine under the microscope, and make drawings 
of starch cells from corn, potato, and rice. 

Experiment 51 

Solubility 

Mix | tsp of starch in 2 tbsp of cold water. Filter. 
Test filtrate and residue for starch. 

Experiment 52 

Mix | tsp of starch in 2 tbsp of cold water ; heat to 
boiling, filter, and test filtrate and residue for starch. 

Experiment 53 

Effect of Heat 

Heat 1 tsp starch until light brown, stirring con¬ 
stantly. Taste. Test for starch. What is the product ? 

Mix 1 tsp of product above with 2 tsp cold water. 
Add i c hot water, and let boil up once. 

Mix 1 tsp fresh starch with 2 tsp cold water. Add 
\ c hot water, stirring well. Let boil up once. 

Compare the two products as to consistency of paste. 
What property of the starch was impaired by the dry 
heating ? 

Stir 1 tsp dry starch into i c of boiling water. 
Explain the result. 

Mix 1 tsp starch with \ c cold water. Heat in 
double boiler. 


6o 


Preparation of Food 


Record temperature at which mixture begins to take 
on a pasty consistency. 

Examine condition of starch cells at this stage under 
the microscope. 

Continue heating until temperature becomes station¬ 
ary. Record this temperature. 

Examine condition of starch cells at this temperature. 

Prepare a second sample as above, but heat at once 
over naked flame, boiling for 5 minutes. 

Examine cells from this paste under microscope. 

Compare the two preparations as to flavor. 

Is the boiling temperature necessary in order to 
gelatinize the starch grains ? 

Does this temperature seem to be necessary to the 
development of flavor ? 

What can you say as to the digestibility of raw 
starch ? 

Applications 
Cornstarch Pudding 

1 c milk i egg 

Cornstarch Salt 

1 tbsp sugar Vanilla 

1. Determine amount of cornstarch to be used in 
this recipe. 

2. Determine all ingredients for 1 qt of milk. 

3. Develop a recipe for cornstarch pudding without 
eggs. 

Scald the milk, reserving a little cold. Mix corn¬ 
starch, sugar, and salt with the cold milk, and add to 


Laboratory Guide 61 

the hot milk. Stirring constantly, boil 5 minutes, and 
cook in double boiler 15 minutes or longer. 

Add slightly beaten yolks and continue heating 
until the yolks are cooked. Remove from heat. Add 
whites, beaten stiff, and flavoring. Serve hot with hard 
sauce. 

Hard Sauce 

2 c sugar l c butter 

Flavoring 

Cream the butter. Add the sugar and blend very 
thoroughly. 

Snow Pudding 

1 c water £ tsp vanilla 

1 tbsp cornstarch 1 egg white 

2 tbsp sugar £ tsp salt 

Mix the starch in one-fourth of the water. Heat 
the remainder to boiling, stir in the starch, and 
boil for 15 minutes. Add the sugar ; remove from 
the fire and stir into it immediately the stiffly beaten 
egg white, to which was added the salt. Add vanilla. 

Heap lightly upon a dish and drop spoonfuls of 
jelly or marmalade in the center. Serve cold. 

Compare with the cornstarch pudding as to cost, 
probable digestibility, and nutritive value. (Disregard 
the hard sauce and the jelly.) 

White Sauce 

1 tbsp flour 1 tbsp butter 

1 c liquid 

Flour Butter Milk 

i tbsp i tbsp I C 


I. Thin white sauce 


62 


Preparation of Food 


Flour Butter Milk 

2. Medium white sauce . 2 tbsp 12 tbsp 1 c 

3. Thick white sauce . . 4 tbsp 2 tbsp 1 c 

1. Melt butter until it bubbles, add flour, mixing 
thoroughly. Add milk slowly, stirring constantly. 
Boil. Or: 

2. Heat milk, reserving a little cold. Mix flour 
with cold milk until perfectly smooth. Add gradually 
to hot milk, stirring constantly. Add butter and blend 
thoroughly. 

Under what condition would method (1) be more 
desirable ? Method (2) ? 

Give uses for sauce of each consistency. 

Experiment 54 

Composition and Cooking of Vegetables 

1. Observe under the microscope : 

(a) A thin slice of raw potato which has been 
stained with iodine. Make a drawing showing the 
distribution of cellulose and starch. 

(< b ) Compare the above with a similar slice from 
a boiled potato. Upon which constituent has the heat 
had the most marked effect ? 

Experiment 55 

(a) Cut a very thin slice through the middle of a 
well-washed raw potato. Place in a suitable dish and 
allow the water from the tap to run over it for 15 min¬ 
utes. Drain and pour dilute iodine over the surface. 

(b) At the same time treat similarly with iodine a 
freshly cut unwashed slice. Compare after 5 minutes. 


Laboratory Guide 63 

Experiment 56 

Place in boiling water and cook until soft a few slices 
of potato washed as in (a) above. Compare with similarly 
cooked slices put to boil when freshly cut. What con¬ 
stituent has been largely lost by the long washing? 
How does this loss affect the nutritive value ? 

Experiment 57 

Test the water from one of the above preparations 
for sugar and starch. 

Experiment 58 

Cut thin slices of carrot, turnip, parsnip, onion, and 
soaked peas. Treat each with iodine and examine after 
5 minutes. Cook a few slices of each of these vege¬ 
tables in a little water, and test the water for sugar and 
starch. 

Experiment 59 

Pare potatoes and divide in half (a) and (b). 

Put (a) to cook in boiling salted water, 1 tsp of salt 
to 2 c of water. At the same time put (b) to cook in 
same quantity of unsalted water. Add 1 tsp of salt 
when potatoes are nearly done. 

Compare (#) and (b) as to time required in cooking 
and also as to texture and flavor. 

Repeat the experiment, using a green vegetable. 
Compare (a) and (b) as to flavor and color. 

Experiment 60 

Wash 4 potatoes, remove imperfections, dry, and 
weigh. 

1. Bake in hot oven until tender. 


64 


Preparation of Food 


2. Cook in rapidly boiling water. 

3. Cook in steamer. 

4. Pare, and cook as in (2). 


Record : 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Weight when ready to cook . . . 

Time of cooking. 

Inner temperature when done . . 
Weight after cooking. 






Creamed Potatoes 

Pare potatoes, cut into half-inch cubes, and cook in 
salted water. Drain dry, add hot white sauce No. 1. 
Record amount of sauce needed for a given amount of 
potato. 

Stuffed Potatoes 

Cut hot baked potato in two lengthwise. Remove 
inside, and season with butter (about 1 tsp), salt, and 
pepper. Heap lightly in skins and brown in the oven. 

Mashed Potatoes 

6 potatoes (boiled) 1 tsp salt 

3 tbsp butter £ c hot milk 

The butter, salt, and milk are approximate. Why ? 

Heat the milk and butter together. Mash potatoes 
thoroughly. Add seasonings and milk. Beat until 
smooth and white. Heap lightly in hot dish. 

Boiled Potatoes 

Wash and scrub potatoes and remove imperfections. 
Place in boiling water and boil until tender (about 20 
minutes). Add salt about 10 minutes before removing 
(1 tbsp of salt to 6 potatoes). When done drain, remove, 














Laboratory Guide 


65 


cover, and shake over heat. Remove skins, cover with 
cloth, and let stand in a warm place until ready to serve. 

Potato Croquettes 

“2 c hot riced potatoes £ tsp celery salt 
2 tbsp butter A few grains of cayenne 

4 tsp salt A few drops of onion juice 

4 tsp pepper 1 tsp finely chopped parsley 

“ Mix ingredients in order given and beat thoroughly. 
Shape, roll in flour, then in beaten egg, and lastly in 
fine bread crumbs. Fry one minute. Drain on paper.” 
Or : 

Season cold mashed potato by adding to each cupful 
1 tsp finely chopped onion 
1 tsp finely chopped parsley 
A little extra salt 
A few grains of cayenne 

Shape into cylinders or cones, dip in egg, roll in 
fine bread crumbs, and fry or saute quickly on all sides. 
Drain on paper. 

Baked Sweet Potatoes 

Select perfect potatoes of medium size. Bake (avoid 
piercing with a large-tined fork). Cut into halves 
lengthwise. Serve hot with butter or gravy. 

Steamed Sweet Potatoes 

Steam, remove skins, oil lightly with butter, sprinkle 
a very little sugar over, and brown a few minutes in the 
oven. Or : 

Mash, add a little milk, season with salt and butter, 
heap lightly on a dish, and brown. 


66 


Preparation of Food 


Escalloped Cabbage 

Soak white cabbage in cold water until crisp. Cook 
until tender in boiling salted water (i tsp of salt to I pt 
of water). Drain off the water, cut in pieces, mix with 
white sauce (of what consistency?). Put in baking 
dish or in ramekins, cover with buttered crumbs, and 
brown in the oven. 

Name other vegetables which may be prepared as 
above. 

Canned Green Vegetables 

Open the can and empty the contents at once into 
a colander. Wash well with fresh water. Why ? The 
flavor is usually improved by allowing them to stand for 
an hour or more exposed to the air. 

Heat in double boiler (30 to 60 minutes), add butter, 
salt, and, in case the fresh vegetable is a sweet one, 
a little sugar. Or : 

Heat and season as above, add 1 tsp of flour, mix 
well, remove pan to naked flame, add 1 c of water or 
milk, let boil up once. Compare as to taste the liquor 
from commercial and domestic .canned vegetables. 


Vegetable Stew 


i c carrot 
i c turnip 

i c celery 

ii c potato 
1 qt water 


1 tbsp onion 
3 tbsp butter 
1 tsp parsley 
1 tsp (?) salt 
Pepper 


Cut the vegetables into half-inch cubes. Saute in 
the butter until a delicate brown. Add the salt and 








Laboratory Guide 67 

pepper and lastly the water, hot. Simmer for 1 hour. 
Add potatoes the last 20 minutes. 

Cream of Vegetable Soup 

Based upon the work already done with starch and 
with vegetables, prepare a cream of vegetable soup. 
Quantity when finished, 1 c. 

Serve with croutons prepared by cutting strips f inch 
in width from thick slices of fine-grained bread and 
toasting them in a moderate oven to a delicate brown. 
In case the crust is rejected for the sake of appearance, 
is it refuse or waste ? 

Baked Beans 

Weigh and pleasure dry beans. Soak over night in 
cold water. 

Place in cold water to which has been added some 
baking soda (i tsp to 1 pt of water). Heat slowly and 
cook until the skins begin to burst. 

Pour off water. Add | tsp of salt and 2 tsp mo¬ 
lasses for each cup of dry beans used. Mix well, place 
in bean jar, put small cubes of salt pork on top, cover 
with water. Bake slowly for 6 or 8 hours. (What 
temperature ?) Add more water if needed. 

Weight of beans before cooking ? 

Weight of beans after cooking ? 

Bulk of beans after cooking ? 

Cost of nutrients ? 


68 


Preparation of Food 

Cereals 

Experiment 61 

Rice 

1. Weigh out i oz of rice, noting its bulk. Wash 
thoroughly to remove dust and loose starch from the 
surface of the grains. Add to 2 c of rapidly boiling 
salted water (i tsp of salt). Keep up the rapid boiling 
until the rice is tender. Transfer to a strainer and pour 
a little water through it. Hot or cold ? Shake off the 
surplus water and dry the rice a little in the oven or 
in a dish over boiling water. 

Record : 

Time of cooking. 

Weight after boiling. 

Ratio of bulk before and after boiling. 

2. Continue boiling the water in which the rice 
was cooked until the volume is reduced about one-half. 
Cool and note consistency. Explain. 

Experiment 62 

Prepare i ounce of rice as above. Cook for 3 to 
5 minutes in i c of boiling salted water (£ tsp of salt. 
Why less than in Experiment 61 ?). Finish the cooking 
in the double boiler. Avoid stirring while cooking. Re¬ 
move cover from saucepan and shake the contents for 
a few minutes to aid in drying. 

Compare with Experiment 61 as to: 

(a) Time of cooking. 

(b) Weight. 

( c) Bulk, 


Laboratory Guide 


69 


(d) Appearance. 

(e) Flavor. 

Explain any difference in weight between Experi¬ 
ments 61 and 62. 

Experiment 63 

Comparison of Rice with Potato 

Rice Potato 

Weight as purchased .... 

Weight when ready to cook 
Weight cooked ..... 

Bulk ....... 

Cost per lb raw 1 

Cost per lb boiled .... 

Total nutrients per lb raw . 

Total nutrients per lb cooked 
Fuel value per lb raw 
Fuel value per lb boiled 
Cost per 3,000 calories (an estimate of 
daily requirement for 1 man) 

Escalloped Rice with Cheese 

Mix the rice from Experiment 62 with white sauce. 
Add 1 tbsp of finely divided cheese and a few grains of 
cayenne pepper. Cover with buttered crumbs and 
brown in the oven. 

Estimate the nutritive value of this dish, including 
the buttered crumbs. 

Rice Croquettes 

Add to the rice from Experiment 62, 1 tbsp of sugar, 
half of one egg yolk, a little nutmeg or lemon extract. 

1 60 lb potatoes = 1 bu. 




7 o 


Preparation of Food 


Shape into croquettes. Roll in egg and bread crumbs. 
Fry. Serve with jelly. 

Plain Rice Pudding 

To i qt of whole milk add 4 tbsp of well-washed 
rice, 4 tbsp of sugar, and 2 tsp of salt. Bake 3 to 
5 hours at a low temperature, stirring the pudding up 
thoroughly every hour. When it begins to thicken 
add 1 c of seeded raisins. Finally allow the top to 
brown nicely. Serve hot or cold with thin cream. 

What are some good points in this pudding ? 

Estimate nutritive value. 

For what meal is it best suited ? 

Experiment 64 

Quaker Oats 

Prepare 1 ounce of Quaker Oats, using the propor¬ 
tions suggested upon the package, but cook for 5 min¬ 
utes over free flame and finish the cooking in a double 
boiler. Note the volume of: 

1. Dry material taken. 

2. Resulting porridge. 

Determine the nutritive value and cost of an indi¬ 
vidual serving of oatmeal porridge. 

Experiment 65 

Weigh out 1 ounce of each of the cereals furnished, 
noting the volume in each case. Cook as directed in 
Experiment 64, recording the exact volume of water 
used. 

Is there any relation between the amounts of water 
needed for each ? 


Laboratory Guide 


7 1 


Were the volumes of dry cereal comparable ? 

Are the volumes of cooked cereal comparable ? 
Complete the following tabulation with data from all 
cereals prepared, including rice. 


Name of cereal. 


Bulk of 
1 oz dry. 


Bulk of 
oz cooked. 


Water Cost of individual 
required. serving. 


















72 


Preparation of Food 


Amount of Nutrients Furnished for Ten Cents in Cereal 
Foods Compared with Other Foods 




Ten Cents Will Pay 

FOR 


Name of food. 

Price per 
pound. 

Total 

food 

material. 

Nutrients. 

Fuel 

value. 



Protein. 

Fats. 

Carbo¬ 

hydrates. 



\ 


• 

• 































Laboratory Guide 
Leavening 


73 


Examine the flour preparations, leavened and un¬ 
leavened. To what is the difference in appearance and 
texture due ? What “ light ” preparation have you 
made in your previous work ? To what was that 
“lightness ” due ? 

Make leavened and unleavened biscuit, and note 
difference as to taste, texture, and appearance. 

Leavening Agents 

What leavening agents have you already used ? 
What are sources of those most commonly used ? 

Experiment 66 

Arrange apparatus according to the model set up. 
Determine the reaction and test products obtained from : 

1. Soda and sour milk. 

2. Soda and molasses. 

3. Soda and cream of tartar. 

4. Baking powder. 

5. Soda and calcium acid phosphate. 

6. Yeast. 

Write the equations for these reactions. What 
chemical product is common to all of them ? What can 
you say concerning the residue in each? Judging from 
these experiments, what are the essential constituents 
of a leavening agent ? 

Leavened Preparations 

In writing notes on all leavened preparations record 
the kind of gas made use of, also the ingredients present 
which serve to retain the gas. 


74 


Preparation of Food 


Popovers 

“ i c flour i egg 

i c milk J tsp salt 

“ Mix ingredients and beat until very light. Bake 
in a moderately hot oven, with gradually increasing heat, 
40 to 45 minutes.” 


White Sponge Cake 


1 measure of egg white 
1 measure freshly sifted 
flour 

& tsp cream of tartar for 
each egg white used 


ii measures fine granulated 
sugar 

Flavoring, 6 drops for each 
egg white used 


Beat the egg to a stiff froth, adding the cream of 
tartar while beating. Add sugar gradually, flavoring. 
P'old flour in. Avoid stirring. Bake at 150° for 30 
minutes. 


Steamed Brown Bread. I 

2 c corn meal 2 c sour milk 

2 c bread crumbs 1 c molasses 

1 tsp salt 2 tsp soda 

1 c seeded raisins 

If the crumbs are very dry moisten them with cold 
water. Drain off the water and let them warm a few 
minutes in the oven. Dissolve soda in milk, add the 
other ingredients at once, and mix well. Steam 3 to 
4 hours. The loaves may afterwards be dried off for 
a few minutes in the oven. 


Laboratory Guide 


7 5 


Steamed Brown Bread. II 


“ i c corn meal 
i c rye meal 
I c molasses 


1 c Graham flour 

2 c sour milk 
i tsp soda 


i tsp salt 

“ Mix and steam as above.” 


Griddle Cakes 


“3 c flour 

4 tsp baking powder 
i tsp salt 


1 c sugar 

2 c milk 
i egg 


i tsp melted butter 


“ Mix and sift dry ingredients; beat egg, add milk, 
and pour slowly on first mixture. Beat thoroughly and 
add butter. Drop by spoonfuls on a hot griddle ; cook 
on one side. When puffed full of bubbles and cooked 
on edges, turn and cook other side.” 


Corn Meal Gems 


i c thick sour milk 
| c corn meal 
i c flour 
i tsp sugar 


i egg 
i tsp salt 

i to f tsp soda (why not give 


definite measure here ?) 


Dissolve the soda in the milk. Add the meal and 
flour at once. (Why ?) Stir till well mixed. Add the 
sugar, salt, and egg. Beat until the egg is thoroughly 
blended with the batter. Have the gem pans well 
greased and very hot. Fill two thirds full and bake 
io to 15 minutes in hot oven. 


76 


Preparation of Food 


Baking Powder Biscuit 


2 c flour 
i tsp salt 


4 tsp baking powder 
4 tsp butter, lard, or suet 


| to i c milk or water 


Mix the dry ingredients ; rub the butter in thor¬ 
oughly, then add the milk gradually, stirring with a 
spoon until a soft smooth dough is formed which can 
be stirred free from the side of the mixing bowl. Turn 
out on the board, using flour to prevent sticking. (Avoid 
leaving dry flour upon the surface of the biscuits.) Roll 
to about f inch in thickness, cut with a rather small 
cutter. Bake 5 to 8 minutes. (Temperature?) 

Prepare biscuit, using half the amount of shortening 
indicated above, but adding 50 jo more baking powder. 

Modify the recipe given for biscuits until the prepa¬ 
ration will be suitable for piecrust, shortcake, or patties. 
Serve with suitable fillings. 

Record: 

Cost of first recipe. 

Cost of first modification. 

Cost of second modification. 


Laboratory Guide 


77 


Cakes 

Tabulate 6 recipes for cake as found in cook books 
according to the variation in the amount of fat used 
with i c of liquid, beginning with the recipe using the 
minimum quantity. 



Prepare cakes according to each recipe, using butter 
as the shortening. 

Compare one of the above with cakes prepared 
according to same recipe, but using different kinds of 
fat. 

Which shortening produces a cake most nearly re¬ 
sembling the butter cake in flavor ? In texture ? 

Serve the first cake in the above series as a pudding, 
using one of the sauces given on pages 78-79. 

What is the general purpose of a sauce ? 

Name sauces which carry a flavor complementary to 
that of the dish. 

Name others in which there is contrast in flavor. 


















78 


Preparation of Food 


Score card for cake. 

Student’s Score. 

General appearance — size, 



shape, icing, etc. 

10 


Lightness . 

1 5 


Crust—color,depth,and texture, 

10 


Crumb — moisture, color, grain, 



and texture. 

20 


Flavor of cake itself. 

35 


Flavor of cake, including icing 



and filling. 

10 


Total. 

100 



Lemon Sauce 

i c sugar I c butter 

i egg i tsp nutmeg 

3 tbsp boiling water Juice of i lemon and i the 

rind grated 

Cream butter and sugar, add beaten egg, lemon, 
and nutmeg. Beat for 5 minutes, add water gradually, 
set over boiling water. Serve hot. 

Golden Sauce 

2 tbsp butter 1 c powdered sugar 

2 e SS y°lks 3 egg whites 

3 tbsp cream Flavoring 

Cream butter and sugar, add yolks beaten until 
lemon-colored and thick, then the cream. Carefully 
fold in the stiffly beaten whites. 


















Laboratory Guide 


79 

What addition to the above pudding suggests itself 
if it is to be served with a plain sauce ? 

Plain Sauce 

1 tbsp butter i tbsp flour 

6 tbsp sugar i c liquid 

Flavoring 

Note. — The liquid may be a fruit juice, which will furnish the 
flavoring also. 

Prepare in same manner as white sauce, but allow 
it to boil up thoroughly over the naked flame. Serve 
while still foaming. 

Cream Sauce 

2 c cream \ c milk 

3 c powdered sugar i tsp flavoring 

Whip the cream until stiff, then beat it into the 
milk, to which has been added the sugar and flavoring. 
Serve cold. 


Yeast 


Examine active yeast plant under the microscope. 
Note reproduction by cell division. Make drawings. 

Conditions affecting growth • 

temperature. 


Experiment 67 

Blend one yeast cake thoroughly in a pint of water 
to which has been added i tbsp of sugar. 

i. Freeze a portion of the mixture, then allow to 
thaw at room temperature. 



80 Preparation of Food 

2. Boil another portion and cool to room temper¬ 
ature. 

3. Take a third portion at room temperature. 

4. Chill a fourth portion. 

Fill bottles from each of the above and invert them 
on plates. Keep (1), (2), and (3) at 32 to 37 0 and (4) 
packed in ice during the remainder of the laboratory 
period. Explain results observed. 

Effect of Food Conditions 

Observe action of yeast with different food materials 
as given below. 

1. Water. 

2. Water and flour (1 tsp of flour to \ c of water). 

3. Milk. 

4. Milk and flour (proportions as in (2)). 

5. Potato water. 

6. Starch and water. 

7. Water and sugar as used in Experiment 67. 
(i of a yeast cake to each bottle.) 


Study of Flour (Laboratory Work) 

References: John Goodfellow. Dietetic Value of Bread. 
Leach. Pages 244-254. 

Hutchison. Food and the Principles of 
Dietetics, Chapter XI. 

Bulletin 13, pt. 9. Bureau of Chemistry. 
Foods and Food Adulterants: Cereals 
and Cereal Products. 



Laboratory Guide 


81 


Farmers’ Bulletin 112. Bread and the 
Principles of Breadmaking. 

Office of Experiment Stations. Bulletins 
5 2 > 67, 85, 101, 126, 143, 156. 

Bulletin 82. South Dakota Experiment 
Station. • 

1. Examine Graham, whole wheat, and white flour. 
Sift and examine residue. 

2. Comparison of spring and winter wheat flour: 

(a) Color. 

( b ) Texture. 

(c) Cohesion — press in hand. 

(d) Composition (experiment). 

Experiment 68 

Composition 

1. Make a rather stiff dough with 2 tbsp of flour 
and let stand 20 minutes. 

2. Tie the dough in a piece of cheese cloth and 
wash by kneading for 3 minutes in \ c of water. Test 
this water for sugar and starch. 

3. Take fresh water and continue the washing 
until the wash water gives no test for starch. What 
is the residue upon the cloth ? Form into a ball and 
bake. What characteristic of protein is shown ? What 
is the percentage composition of Graham, entire wheat, 
and patent flours ? How do the constituents affect the 
value of the flour to the baker? To the consumer? 
Examine macaroni. Compare with flour as to con¬ 
stituents, composition, and method of manufacture. 



82 


Preparation of Food 
Breads 


Short Process 

See page 46 for directions. 

Record oven temperature. 

Judge the bread by the score card. 


Revised bread score card. 
Judging bread. 

Flavor . 

35 

Lightness. 

15 

Grain and texture. 

20 

Crust — color, depth, texture, 

10 

Crumb — color, moisture . . 

10 

Shape and size. 

10 

Total. 

100 


Student’s 

Score. 

Instructor’s 

Score. 

Sample 

No. 

Sample 

No. 

Sample 

No. 

Sample 

No. 


























Long Process 

l cake of dry yeast 1 tsp sugar 

1 tsp butter 1 c water 

1 tsp salt 3 c flour 

Sponge 

Soak the yeast in the warmed water until softened. 
Place the sugar, salt, and butter in a bowl. Add the 
warm water, yeast, and about one-half of the flour. 
Beat smooth and let rise. 











































Laboratory Guide 


83 


Dough 

Add the remainder of the flour to the light sponge, 
stirring it in until it is well mixed (a little more or less 
than 3 c of flour may be required). Turn the dough 
onto the board and knead quickly until it is smooth 
and somewhat elastic to the touch. Put into a bowl 
and set to rise. (Temperature?) 

Loaves 

When the dough is thoroughly light (this will be 
when it has doubled its original bulk) knead it down 
well, make into a loaf, and set to rise again in the pan 
in which it is to be baked. When the dough has again 
risen to twice the original size of the loaf, bake for from 
40 to 50 minutes, noting oven temperature every 5 min¬ 
utes during the baking. When baked remove the loaf 
from the pan at once, and cool it on a rack which 
allows for a free circulation of air. 

Entire Wheat Bread 

Make a sponge as for short or long process bread, 
omitting *he butter. When light, use entire wheat flour 
to make a sott dough. Make into loaves; let rise until 
thoroughly light. Bake with moderate heat 1 hour 
or longer. 

Bread Sticks 

When it is desirable to have a bread with a large 
proportion of crust, a dough prepared as for rolls may 
be baked in bread stick pans or merely formed into 
long, slender rolls and arranged in an ordinary pan, 
giving room for them to rise without touching each 
other. 


8 4 


Preparation of Food 


Zwieback 

Make the dough into ordinary round rolls, not too 
large, placing them close together in the pan. When 
baked turn them out of the pan and separate them 
quickly; then pull each roll apart, holding it by the 
crusts and taking care not to pack the soft fresh crumb. 
Place them in the pan with crusts down, and continue 
the baking until the crumb is a delicate brown. 

In what cases may a large proportion of crust, i. e ., 
of dextrinized starch, be desirable ? What is toast? 
How made properly ? 

Parker House Rolls 

“2 c scalded milk i yeast cake blended with 
3 tbsp butter \ c lukewarm water 

2 tbsp sugar 6 c (?) flour 

i tsp salt 

“ Pour milk over butter, sugar and salt. When 
cooled to proper temperature add yeast and 3 c of flour. 
Beat well. Let rise; add enough flour to make a soft 
dough. When light, roll out to i inch in thickness. 
Cut with rather large biscuit cutter. Crease each roll 
through the middle with a knife handle; brush over 
one half with melted butter; fold and press the edges 
together. Let rise again. Bake 12 to 15 minutes.” 


PRACTICE LUNCHEON 

From the food materials furnished prepare a four- 
course luncheon for one person. 


Laboratory Guide 


«5 


Record 


Materials furnished. 

1 

Menu. 




Remarks. — Note seasonings or other extra materials obtained 
from supply table. 








86 


Preparation of Food 


MEALS 

References: Hill, Janet M. Practical Cooking and Serv¬ 
ing, Part III, Chapter VI. 

Farmer, Fannie M. Boston Cooking School 
Cook Book, Chapter XXXVIII. 
Springsteed, Anne F. Expert Waitress. 
Larned, Linda Hull. Hostess of Today. 

Experiment 69 

Make out menus and market lists for a breakfast, 
luncheon, and dinner to be served to 6 persons, esti¬ 
mating cost of such meals. 

Revise these memoranda in consultation with the 
instructor. 

Prepare and serve the meals in cooperation with the 
other members of the class, devoting one laboratory 
period to each. 

Make out a report in the following form : 


Menu. 

Cost of 
amount 
prepared. 

Value of 
left-over. 

Cost of 
amount 
served. 





Total cost of meal. 


Number of persons served. 


Cost per person.. 







































SfP i£ 1910 


One copy del. to Cat. Div. 


SfeV 


12 if 8® 








































































































































































































































































































































































































































































